7. Violent adolescent behavior is associated with: self-restraint inculcated in early childhood; conformity, competitiveness, and trust inculcated in adolescence; antisocial and deviant behavior in adult men. Adolescence culture is one of the basic factors that determine the rate and nature in which human beings grow and develop during the entire process of adolescence. Ephron, Nora. It is also very important to note that the crises that male adolescents face are different from those which females’ adolescents undergo. “Adolescent Storm and Stress, Reconsidered.” American Psychologist 54 (5): 317–26. 2001), while poverty (Eveleth and Tanner 1976) or living under war conditions increases the age of attainment (Tahirovie 2000; cited in Karapanou and Papadimitriou 2010). 2001. The peer group is more important for adolescents who are less involved with their family units (1991, 72). In adolescence, _____ approval has a powerful influence on gender attitudes and behavior. 1986. Its mission is to encourage and facilitate the cross-cultural study of human culture, society and behavior in the past and present. If we examine evolution from an individual perspective, initiates incur serious risks, particularly when rituals involve scarification or surgery. Daniels, C. Leaper, in Encyclopedia of Adolescence, 2011. Societies with extensive menstrual taboos are associated with individual female puberty rites (Kitahara 1984). The view that “storm and stress” are characteristic of adolescence has a long history in western thought, but it gained prominence with the writings of G. Stanley Hall in the early 1900s. About half of the societies in the anthropological record practice exclusive mother-child sleeping. Copyright 2021 Leaf Group Ltd. / Leaf Group Media, All Rights Reserved. 1961. Sosis, Richard, Howard C. Kress, and James S. Boster. Why? When a child grows up in a culture or household that gives a certain amount of freedom, he expects that the given amount of freedom is customary in society. https://doi.org/10.1080/03014468300006141. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Young, Frank W. 1962. 2010. Initiation rites tend to be present in societies at the middle range of social complexity and absent with very high social complexity. There are youths living in abject poverty today and worse enough they engage in drug and alcohol abuse. 2002; Frisch and Revelle 1970; Frisch and Revelle 1971) generally have an earlier menarche. Same-sex parent. 1965. In addition (1991, 34–35), adolescence: is a relatively brief stage of life—commonly ending for males by age 18 and females by 16; is sometimes (in 25% of societies) followed by a “youth” stage before adulthood. One clear example of this is how Western cultures give many freedoms to growing teens, allowing them to drive and hold part-time jobs, activities that do not happen until much later in Eastern countries. ———. Ceremonies for girls are likely to be one individual at a time, whereas ceremonies for boys usually involve a considerable number of boys. Culture is learned and socially shared, and it affects all aspects of an individual's life. Driver, Harold E. 1969. Adolescence describes the transitional stage in a teenager’s life, from childhood to adulthood, where an individual evolves physically, psychologically, emotionally, cognitively and socially. Indeed, in nonindustrial societies, expectations/norms were most commonly violated in adulthood (1991, 138, 152). Among societies with male-centered households, adolescents are typically expected to obey the father; subordination is less expected in societies with female-centered households (1991, 58). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.02.007. “Adolescent Initiation Ceremonies: A Cross-Cultural Code.” Ethnology 18 (2): 199–210. Conversely, since societies engaging in external warfare would be more concerned with uniting internal groups, permanent markers could be seen as reinforcing unity. With multiculturalism spreading through the world, many parents may begin to wonder about what kind of influence their family, ethnic or national culture will have on their growing adolescents. Exploring how cultural and ethnic differences affect adolescent development is a key theme in Fuligni's research. The study of adolescence has come with a context—a culture of, by, and for youth, arising in the postwar boom of the 1950s and epitomized by James Dean. Having obtained a Master of Science in psychology in East Asia, Damon Verial has been applying his knowledge to related topics since 2010. The more a male solidarity group is institutionalized, the more dramatic are male initiation ceremonies (Young 1965). Vol. In the United States, adolescence is seen as a time to develop independence from parents while remaining connected to them. Somewhere along the way, we ceased to be a culture where kids aspire to be adults and became a culture where adults … https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20106. Other social explanations consider the presence of warfare. What skills are most valued and instilled in adolescents, per cross-cultural research? 1980. “Adolescence” in C. R. Ember, ed. In hunter-gatherer societies, religious skills and beliefs constitute the largest domain of adolescent learning (Garfield, Garfield, and Hewlett 2016, 28). “A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Hunter-Gatherer Social Learning.” In Social Learning and Innovation in Contemporary Hunter-Gatherers, edited by Hideaki Terashima and Barry S. Hewlett, 19–34. Two primary categories of collective problems that initiations may work to solve are resource acquisition and warfare. Why? Schlegel, Alice, and Herbert Barry III. 2016. Considering that the adolescent years are a period of finding one’s self-identity, adolescents from a non-mainstream culture may find it more difficult to identify themselves. But his broader goal is to understand the processes that affect health and well-being for all adolescents. The Oedipus Complex: Cross Cultural Evidence. 2015. These age-segregation patterns, according to Coleman, precipitate the creation of a separate adolescent culture in which adolescents speak a "language" increasingly different from that of adults. Maidenhood (length of time from a girl’s menarche to marriage and sexual activities) increases in length with greater social complexity. Further- more, most cultures institutionalize a period of preparation for adulthood that may be analogous to adolescence as we know it. Ember, Melvin. Also during adolescence, the individual experiences an upsurge of sexual feelings following the latent sexuality of childhood. Adolescence (from Latin adolescere 'to grow up') is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood (age of majority). Does valuing fatness predict earlier menarche? Whiting, John W.M., Victoria K. Burbank, and Mitchell S. Ratner. Culture is the shared symbolic systems, and processes of maintaining and transforming those systems. They instill a sense of self-pride in their children. How much has adolescence changed with formal schooling and the greater entry of most societies into a more commercial economy? The psychological interpretation of initiation rites is supported when studies use other measures of mother-child closeness, father-child distance, and initiation rites (Schlegel and Barry 1980; Kitahara 1982a). 1991. Middle Eastern cultures are beginning to rate chastity low in terms of ideal traits. When ceremonies are held for both boys and girls, there are many similar elements. We appreciate Tulin Duda’s editorial suggestions. Sosis, Kress, and Boster (2007) found that cross-culturally: Societies with warfare (either internal or external) have more costly rites. 2007. Brown (1963) suggests that female initiation rites serve to announce a change in status from girlhood to adulthood in societies where girls do not regularly move from the household in which they grew up. Eveleth, Phyllis B., and James M. Tanner. In addition, research shows that there are differences in the prevalence of SAD in different cultures. Petersen (1988) linked running away in modern society with pervasive parent-child conflict; Schlegel and Barry (1991) p. 52 found no such link in nonindustrial societies. Finally, in late adolescence and early adulthood, these cliques gradually give way to dyadic dating relationships. “The Function of Male Initiation Ceremonies: A Cross-Cultural Test of an Alternative Hypothesis.” American Journal of Sociology 67 (4): 379–96. New York, NY: Free Press. Certain physical attributes also determine menarche. In contrast to work, adolescent play and leisure time activities occur among peers and distinctly apart from adults (Schlegel and Barry 1991, 67). The ceremonies appear to convey that females are highly valued. 2017. In their extensive cross-cultural study, Schlegel and Barry ( 1991, 33) found that almost all societies recognize adolescence as a distinct stage of development (typically characterized by a sharp transition from childhood, leading to new roles and responsibilities, property ownership, and courtship ( … Garfield, Zachary H., Melissa J. Garfield, and Barry S. Hewlett. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1963.65.4.02a00040. Adolescents are essentially in training for the serious duties and responsibilities of full adult status: livelihood, property ownership, marriage, children-rearing, and housekeeping. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116850. Adolescent males tend to spend more time with their peer groups than females do. Whiting (1965) examined the relationship between menarche and early infant stress, an event in the first two weeks of life that involves pain (such as ear piercing), shaping (such as stretching or pushing a limb for cosmetic purposes), and/or separation from the mother. They reveal universal patterns and variations in how societies view and manage adolescence. Here I will focus on what happens during adolescence in African cultures. This finding goes against the common belief that antisocial behavior is more likely when groups of adolescents are engaging in leisure time rather than “constructive” activities (1991, 137). 1982a. The degree of elaboration of menstrual taboos is associated with increasing lengths of the postpartum sex taboo (Stephens 1962, 99). The psychological predictors—exclusive mother-child sleeping and the long post-partum sex taboo—do predict more strongly in the presence of warfare (Ember and Ember 2010). Has recent globalization altered the way societies define adolescence? https://doi.org/10.1525/eth.1984.12.2.02a00030. d. young people in traditional cultures … Promiscuity is rarely condoned (1991, 40). Human Relations Area Files, Inc. (HRAF) is an internationally recognized organization in the field of cultural anthropology. These issues most often define adolescence in Western cultures, and the response to them partly determines the nature of an individual’s adult years. Whiting. Whiting, John W.M., Richard Kluckhohn, and Albert Anthony. Menstrual taboos are found more frequently in communities where males are dominant and tightly organized (Young and Bacdayan 1965). The Cultural Context of Adolescent Development Whether or not adolescence is formally recognized as a distinct stage of life, virtually all cultures distinguish between young people and adults. Older same-gender siblings. Permanent body alterations are more likely when the society engages in external warfare, and nonpermanent markers are more likely with internal warfare. ———. The endorsement of such gender norms is closely linked to poor adolescent sexual and reproductive and other health-related outcomes yet little is known about the factors that influence … https://doi.org/10.2307/3773291. “Female Physiology and Female Puberty Rites.” Ethos 12 (2): 132–50. For example, in some countries, adolescents’ parents are expected to retain control over major decisions, whereas in other countries, adolescents are expected to begin sharing in or taking control of decision making. 1998. Matrilocal a pattern of marital residence in which couples typically live with or near the wife’s parents. “Still Another Interpretation of Male Initiation Ceremonies.” presented at the 66th annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Washington, DC. Post-partum sex taboo a taboo on sexual intercourse between a wife and her husband for a period of time after the birth of a child. Previous research, supported by many more studies, links both short-term physical and emotional infant stress to greater adult height, consistent with the idea that short-term stress accelerates growth (Landauer and Whiting 1981). On the contrary, parents from East Asia tend to focus on creating a sense of both social and family harmony. We can generally agree that adolescence is, as Bonnie L. Hewlett (2013) defines it: “an intense and challenging time of risk and change, of learning and growth, of biological and social development.” Adolescence exists as a social construct—a stage of life between childhood and adulthood—and as a biological construct associated with the onset of reproductive maturation (i.e., puberty). Whereas all adolescents experience similar biological changes in reaching sexual maturity, beliefs about adolescent sexuality vary across cultures and communities within particular societies. Painful female rites tend to occur in societies that also have painful male initiation rites (Brown 1963). Why? Although there is no consensus on the age at which adolescence ends, psychologists such as Erik Erikson believe that adolescence ranges from twelve or thirteen to twenty or twenty years. ———. Into astrology? https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.46.249.695. Nevertheless, matrilocal and bilocal residence are not particularly strong predictors of female initiation, since such rites are very common, whereas matrilocality is relatively uncommon (Driver 1969; Kitahara 1983; 1984). Infliction of pain is more characteristic of ceremonies for boys. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1964.66.3.02a00020. What is considered "okay" behavior in the United States might be frowned upon in Japan, and vice versa. Cross-cultural studies that control for social solidarity groups have found that the presence of exclusive male organizations predicts male initiation rites (Young 1962). For that reason, there’s a vast array of cultural differences in children’s beliefs and behaviour. It makes sense that individuals within such communities would not partake in rituals that leave permanent markers of membership in a particular group. In the United States and other Western countries, “delinquent” behaviors (activities we define as crimes) peak at about age 18; around the same time or shortly afterwards, automobile accidents and substance abuse also peak (Arnett 1999). Premarital sex is reported in a majority of nonindustrial societies, though marriage tends to occur earlier than in industrialized societies (Schlegel and Barry 1991). Cohen suggests that initiation rites are therefore a means by which society can socialize a child within the boundaries of the kin group and promote the identity and values of the culture. Almost all societies recognize adolescence as a stage of human development. Intense physical activity generally appears to delay menarche (see, e.g., Malina 1983; Chavarro et al. See the discussion below. As they reach late adolescence, they'll likely become more confident in themselves and their beliefs. However, there are also significant differences (Schlegel and Barry 1979): Number of initiates. 1999. International Biological Programme Synthesis Series. Teens who come from different backgrounds are influenced by different cultural norms and parental expectations that stem from different attitudes toward values and norms in society. 1965. Adolescence has been a social stage of keen interest in anthropology with culture the distinguishing feature that sets this disciplinary approach apart from others. Older female kin. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.110.4.e43. In middle-range societies, particularly non-state societies with extensive agriculture, initiation rites are common for both sexes, but held separately by gender. Adolescent females have closer relationships with older female kin (excluding sisters) than adolescent males have with older male kin (excluding brothers) (1991, 38). Moreover, the different Human Relations Area Files, http://hraf.yale.edu/ehc/summaries/adolescence, accessed [give date]. A major influence on this is the extent to which a culture is individualist (like ours) or collectivist. Cross-culturally, many forms of violence co-occur to form a “cultural pattern of violence” (Ember and Ember 1993; Ember and Ember 2005). Berkey, Catherine S., Jane D Gardner, Lindsay A., Frazier, and Graham A. Colditz. Founded in 1949 at Yale University, HRAF is a not-for-profit membership consortium of universities, colleges, and research institutions. 2010. Why? This sets up unconscious anxieties in men, including fear of genital injury. “Acute and Prolonged Critical Illness as Different Neuroendocrine Paradigms.” The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 83 (6): 1827–34. Modern industrialized societies encourage this "separate adolescent culture" by creating specialized marketing that cultivates and targets the adolescents' unique taste in music, clothes, and entertainment. In nonindustrial societies, the family unit usually provides the key attributes of adulthood: financial and social support, livelihood, and status (Schlegel and Barry 1991 p 44-45). The Universality of Adolescence as a Distinct Life-Period The most fundamental and classic question in cross-cultural adolescent research is whether all cultures in the world view adolescence as a … Whiting, John W.M. Societies emphasizing obedience in childhood are more likely to have harsh male initiation, particularly involving genital surgery (Schlegel and Barry 2017). Mead, Margaret. Youth culture differs from the culture of older generations. The average age at marriage is between 14–16 for females, and 16-20 for males (Schlegel and Barry 1991, 40). For a critique of both Young’s and Cohen’s theories, see Paige and Paige (1981) pp. While puberty and the issues of becoming an adult are similar for all teens, what they implicitly emphasize in how they grow differs based on culture. Some of these mood changes stem from biological sources. Ember, Carol R., and Melvin Ember. In the twenty-first century, multiple models of adolescence bring into question whether or not the historical concept has as much uniformity as some experts implied it had in the twentieth century. It is absent or short for less complex societies, such as foragers, one to three years for horticulturalists or pastoralists, and five or more years in socially complex societies, such agrarian states (Whiting, Burbank, and Ratner 1986; also cited in Schlegel and Barry 1991). Amount of contact and closeness with older siblings of the same gender is similar for adolescents of both genders (1991, 38). Schlegel and Barry (1991) p. 137 posit that adolescent misbehavior is a result of time spent away from adult companionship, rather than a result of peer activities per se. Infants sleep in the same bed with their mothers during the nursing period and the father sleeps elsewhere. ———. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1982.84.4.02a00180. “Female Puberty Rites: Reconsideration and Speculation.” Adolescence 18 (72): 957–64. Although there is no consensus on the age at which adolescence ends, psychologists such as Erik Erikson believe that adolescence ranges from twelve or thirteen to twenty or twenty years. Adolescence has become, and this must not be missed, the goal of our culture. “Explaining Corporal Punishment of Children: A Cross-Cultural Study.” American Anthropologist 107 (4): 609–19. Teens who come from different backgrounds are influenced by different cultural norms and parental expectations that stem from different attitudes toward values and norms in society. Carol R. Ember, Emily Pitek, and Erik J. Ringen. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/152.5.446. Every culture and person is different and face a unique journey to recovery. ———. Considering that the adolescent years are a period of finding one’s self-identity, adolescents from a non-mainstream culture may find it more difficult to identify themselves. For example, females with a higher proportion of body fat (see, e.g., Freedman et al. Premarital sex among adolescents is generally expected to be confined to a limited number of partners. Many factors that shape adolescent development vary by culture. Increased hormones and changes to the brain structure arise from normal physical growth. Aggressiveness, self-reliance, and competitiveness are more often stressed for males than for females. Using a psychoanalytic approach, Stephens suggests that certain conditions, such as the long post-partum sex taboo, are likely to increase a boy’s attachment to his mother and create rivalry with the father. “Issues in Cross-Cultural Studies of Interpersonal Violence.” Violence and Victims 8 (3): 217–33. Kitahara points to evidence that herbivores commonly have an aversion to menstrual blood whereas omnivores and carnivores tend to be more aggressive in the presence of menstrual blood. Initiates always belong to single-sex groups. Parents coming from difference cultures emphasize different value sets and therefore teach their children different moral standards. Landauer, Thomas K., and John W.M. Young, Frank W., and Albert A. Bacdayan. Initiation rites are more likely to occur in the presence of unilineal descent groups, as well as where members of such descent groups are involved in socializing a child (Cohen 1964). “The Establishment of Identity in a Social Nexus: The Special Case of Initiation Ceremonies and Their Relation to Value and Legal Systems.” American Anthropologist 66 (3): 529–52. Adolescence in Other Cultures ROBERT E. GRINDER and DAVID L. ENGLUND Anthropologists, until recently, have preempted the study of adolescence in other cultures. Young adults are expected to find work and separate living quarters with roommates, a spouse, or alone and, in time, establish a new family unit. Adolescence is a period of personal and social identity formation, in which different roles, behaviors, and ideologies are explored. Although psychological explanations vary, the main theories (Whiting, Kluckhohn, and Anthony 1958; Burton and Whiting 1961) begin with a socialization pattern found in a number of cultures: a very close relationship between a mother and baby combined with relatively high father-absence. “Menstrual Taboos and the Importance of Hunting.” American Anthropologist 84 (4): 901–3. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1969.71.5.02a00120. London: Routledge. Why? Stephens, William N. 1962. In the United States and Canada, ritual social or religious markers of entry into adolescence and adulthood are increasingly rare. These range from avoiding certain activities during menstruation to the extreme of going into seclusion in a menstrual hut. a. adolescents in Western cultures increasingly understand the benefits of arranged marriages. Explaining Human Culture. It is also very important to note that the crises that male adolescents face are different from those which females’ adolescents undergo. “Girls’ Puberty Rites and Matrilocal Residence.” American Anthropologist 71 (5): 905–8. Likewise, different cultural norms regarding family and peer relationships shape adolescents’ experiences in these domains. “Heritability of Age at Menarche in Girls from the Fels Longitudinal Study.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 128 (1): 210–19. On the one hand, adolescents identify with their families, which may be a non-mainstream culture; on the other hand, adolescents also identify with their peer group, which is often a part of the mainstream culture. In Ghana, Africa however, this is different. On the one hand, adolescents identify with their families, which may be a non-mainstream culture; on the other hand, adolescents also identify with their peer group, which is often a part of the mainstream culture. 2004. Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen. In more socially complex societies, peer groups are likely to be larger, more similar in age, and more legitimized by the community than in less complex societies (1991, 79). What are the most important family relationships of adolescents? Social-environmental conditions such as diet, socioeconomic status, and war may also play a role in affecting menarcheal age. “Dietary Fat and Sports Activity as Determinants for Age at Menarche.” American Journal of Epidemiology 138 (4): 217–24. Malina, R. M. 1983. Bilocal a pattern of marital residence in which two residence patterns (usually matrilocal and patrilocal) are about equally frequent. He also runs a financial newsletter at Stock Barometer. Worldwide Variation in Human Growth. “The Duration of Maidenhood Across Cultures.” In School-Age Pregnancy and Parenthood: Biosocial Dimensions, 273–302. Perhaps, then, the two types of rites need two different explanations. Sosis, Kress, and Boster (2007) theorize that initiations identify individuals who are committed to the group and subsequently will have access to “reproductive gains via increased reputational status and group-wide benefits achieved through successful collective action (p. 235).” The authors posit that more costly rites should therefore be seen among groups that risk exploitation by free-riders and where groups offer substantial benefits to members. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.5.317. (Schlegel and Barry 1991). Vol. Because of this, parents often notice differences between cultures, in that children from some cultures are clearly more independent while others are more reliant on their families. b. Unilineal descent groups kin groups formed on the rule of descent, which stipulates that an individual’s membership is assigned at birth through the line of descent of either the mother (matrilineal) or father (patrilineal). The mother-child closeness is presumed to continue in daytime as well. Therefore, hunters may find it advantageous—and safer—to restrict women who are menstruating. Graber, Brooks-Gunn, Julia A. Jeanne, and Michelle P. Warren. ———. (2001) we do know that: The genetic factors influence the onset of menarche (e.g. Coming of Age in Samoa: A Psychology Study in Primitive Youth for Western Civilization. Berkeley, Ca: Univ of California Press. “Running away from home,” is an almost cliché form of delinquency in the United States, but it does seem to have analogs in nonindustrial societies, with such behavior recorded in over half of Schlegel and Barry (1991) sample societies for which information was available. Differences can help parents understand what their children themselves when needed 1982a ) Approach. ” psychological Bulletin 130 6! Roger M. Siervogel knowing these differences can help parents understand what their children experiences and become aroused... 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